Scientific Name: Verbascum thapsus

Common Name(s): Mullein, Common Mullein, Wooly Mullein

©Jane Shelby Richardson ©AnRo0002

Identification:

Mullein is in the family Scrophulariaceae commonly known as the figwort family. Their defining characteristic is having flowers which are zygomorphic, or having bilateral symmetry, which means that when cut in half vertically the petals are mirror images. It is in the Genus Verbascum, which is composed of over 450 mullein species. Species in this genus, form as a rosette of leaves on the ground, which later send up a tall flowering

stem.

Common mullein is a biennial plant and completes its lifecycle in two growing seasons. In its first year, the plant is a low-growing, vegetative rosette. Leaves of the most common species appear hairy, are felt like to the touch. The leaves are oblong-to-lanceolate in shape and mature at 4 to 12 inches in length and 1 to 4 inches in width. In the second year, a stalk grows from the base and reaches heights between 5 and 10 feet. The leaves alternate and switch sides of the steam as they grow and decrease in size as they ascend upward. The leaves are cauline and grow directly from the steam without a petiole.  At the top of the stalk there are yellow flowers with 5 petals, which are grouped densely on leafy spikes.  The plant’s flowers open 3 to 5 at a time and open in the morning and close mid-day. The stalk length on this plant is indeterminate and based on nutrient conditions.

 

All species in this Genus originated from Europe and Asia, with two being very common and widespread throughout the United States: moth mullein (V. blattaria) and common mullein (V. thapsus). Moth mullein is not easily confused with common mullein since it is much shorter and does not have hair like structures on stems or leaves.

Range:

Mullein is native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It was first introduced into North America in the 1700’s. It had become so well established by 1818, that it was listed as a native species in books written about East coast flora in North America. By 1839, it had reached the Midwest and by 1876, it had expanded to the Pacific coast of the United States and Canada.

 

Ecology:

Common mullein blooms throughout the summer from bottom to top. Mullein is most effectively pollinated by bees, as their flower morphology does not accommodate other insects as well. Alternatively, they are autogamous, which means they self-pollinate just prior to closing, if not accomplished by insects. The flowers produce a fruit shaped like a round capsule, which splits in two when matured. Each plant creates 100,000 to 200,000 seeds and mature seeds fall a few feet from the parent plant when the stalk is moved by the wind or a large animal. Common mullein does not have a method to disperse seeds over long distances, so populations tend to grow in dense stands.

 

Common mullein can be found in a variety of soil types but are very shade intolerant. Its deep taproot allows them to live in low water environments. Mullein does best in disturbed soil, as disturbed soil brings seeds from the under layers to the top. The seeds need plenty of light to germinate, so they need to be near the surface. If they are buried, they can remain viable for decades. Populations of common mullein often reappear in soil that has been recently upturned, or the top layer eroded away. Localized populations can be short-lived in undisturbed areas where they disappear into the seedbank until the next disturbance. Common mullein is common in neglected meadows, pasture lands, along fence rows, roadsides, vacant lots, wood edges, forest openings, industrial areas, powerline right of ways, and along open riparian corridors. Interestingly, common mullein can increase soil quality over time, since they have a deep root that can help break through and aerate compacted soil. Additionally, after their second year of growth, they die and compost into the soil adding nutrients to the top layers.

 

Mullein is an interesting plant historically, as it was brought to North America in the 1700’s for its pharmacological uses. It has been used to treat respiratory ailments, skin issues, digestion problems, hemorrhoids, sore throat, coughing, muscle and joint pain, insomnia, allergies, ear infections, asthma, migraines, inflammation, gout, and constipation.  The leaves have been used for at least 2,000 years and go back as early as first century Rome. The leaves are steeped into tea as well as used to create extracts and syrups. The seeds contain rotenone, which is widely used as a pesticide as a fish toxicant.

 

Special Notes:

Here in Bella Vista, mullein is very common along roadsides or newly disturbed lots where seeds have been brought to the surface layer of soil. It can sometimes be found along streams and on dams of our lakes.

 

 

Scientific Name: Toxicodendron radicans

Common Name(s): Poison Ivy
©Agnieszka Kwiecień, Nova ©Bob Peterson©R. A. Nonenmacher  ©Nicholas A. Tonelli

Identification:

Poison Ivy are in the Anacardiaceae family which are commonly referred to as the cashew or sumac family of plants. Specifically, they are in the Genus Toxicodendron which also contains Poison Oak and Poison Sumac.

Poison Ivy can grow as a climbing vine, a low trailing plant, and a shrub depending on the conditions. They have compound leaves, which are grouped into threes. The edges of the leaves can either be smooth, serrated, or lobed resembling a mitten. The compound leaves are grouped in an alternating pattern around the main steam of the vine or bush. Poison Ivy changes color with the season. Summer leaf color is green, changing to yellow and orange in the fall. It loses leaves in the winter. Rootlets extend from the vine to help it grasp surfaces and grow towards the light. Poison Ivy have small flowers with orange centers, and small, white, and oval fruits. They can be found in heavy to moderately shaded areas.

Similar Species

Box Elder, in the maple family of trees, resembles poison ivy when immature. Box Elders have compound leaves that are in groups of 3 to 5. Unlike Poison Ivy, Box Elders have an opposite arrangement of their leaves along the main steam. This means that the compound leaf set arises from the same point instead of alternating points like poison ivy. Virginia creeper resembles poison ivy except it has leaflets in sets of 5.

Poison Oak, Toxicodendron pubescens– Low growing upright shrub with thick, shiny, oak-like (lobed) leaves grouped by threes. It grows to about 3 feet high and prefers high light and low water conditions.

Range:

Eastern Poison Ivy is found in East Canada, the Eastern United States, and Arizona. The Eastern (T. radicans) and Western (T. rydbergii) Species of Poison Ivy ranges overlaps in Texas, Arizona, the Northeastern United States, the midwestern United States and Eastern Canada.

Ecology:

Poison Ivy are in the Anacardiaceae family which are commonly referred to as the cashew or sumac family of plants. Specifically, they are in the Genus Toxicodendron which also contains Poison Oak and Poison Sumac. The plants in this genus produce an oil called urushiol. This oil helps protect the plan from herbivores since it is toxic when ingested. Urushiol oil is lipophilic which allows it to be readily absorbed into our skin.

The oil does not commonly affect other animals’ skin like they do humans. Up to 90% of the population is allergic to poison ivy and will experience a rash when they rub against any part of the plant or touch an object or animal that has contacted the plant.  An allergic reaction can even occur in winter when the plant is dormant. We can also be exposed to urushiol oil by breathing in smoke from burning poison ivy.  When the skin is exposed to poison ivy for the first time, the urushiol oil will readily absorb into the skin and bind to proteins forming protein complexes. The first time this occurs, usually the immune system will slowly remove the foreign entity but will keep a memory of the chemicals with future “attacks.”  Once exposed more than once, the immune system has registered the oil and employs more robust and rapid immune responses to clear the foreign material. It is this act of clearing the oil from the inner layers of skin that causes the rash and burning associated with Poison Ivy exposure. Furthermore, the more exposure a person has to poison ivy, the more robust the immune response and the more severe the rash.

It can grow in a variety of light and soil conditions, but are most commonly abundant along forest edges, open forest, and in moderate sunlight. They produce toxic pale green-whitish berries ripening in late summer to early fall.

Special Notes:

Here in Bella Vista, Poison Ivy is very common. Immature box elder, and Virginia creeper can be easily misidentified as poison ivy. The main feature that distinguishes the two, is the pattern of the compound leaves around the main stem of the plant. Many people believe that they are not allergic to poison ivy because of previous misidentified contact with look-a-likes, only to find out differently the hard way.

Scientific Name: Corvus brachyrhynchos, Corvus ossifagus

Common Name(s): American Crow, Fish Crow

©Wikimedia Commons © Rhododendrites

Identification:

Crows are large black birds with black feathers, black eyes, and a large black beak. They are common birds within their ranges and are generally easily identified. The common raven which can be confused with crows, is not found in Arkansas. The two species of crow found in Arkansas are the American crow and the fish crow. The American crow measures 16-20 inches in length, and weights 11-22 ounces, while the fish crow is smaller in both size and weight. There are other physical differences between the two species, however, it is very difficult and inconsistent to identify each species visually. Instead, the best way to differentiate these two species is by their calls. American crows call with the classic “caawww-caawww-caawww” that most people associate with crows, while fish crows call with a similar but much shorter and more nasally “ahh-ahh-ahh” sound. During calls, fish crows also tend to tilt the head back more noticeably and puff out the throat feathers

Range:

The species range of the American crow and the fish crow overlap in the southeastern and eastern United States. However, the American crow’s range extends over nearly the entirety of the lower 48 states, while the fish crow’s range is limited to the aforementioned southeastern and eastern United States.

Ecology:

Crows are omnivorous and will eat anything that is easily available. For example, they will consume carrion, all types of invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians, small rodents, fish, nuts and seeds, grains, and human scraps. American crows are one of the few observed species of birds making and using tools to obtain food. Crows are intelligent and adaptable and will make their home in temperate forests near water, in agricultural field, or in urban areas.

While similar in appearance and diet, American crows and fish crows differ in their reproductive strategies. American crows are monogamous and form large family groups with juveniles from previous years staying with the group to assist in raising new hatchlings. Breeding starts early and egg laying has been observed as early as April. A clutch consists of 3-9 eggs, and there is 1, maybe 2, broods per year. Both males and females build nests. Sexual maturity is reached at two years of age, but many do not leave their family group until four or five years of age.

Fish crows are seasonally monogamous, with the female building the nests. Males may accompany females to gather nest material, but they do not participate in nest building. Breeding occurs in a similar time frame as American crows, with 2-6 eggs per clutch with one clutch per year. Although they are not as family group oriented as American crows, they will nest loosely together, with nests within 100 feet of each other.

Crows are very intelligent and very social. This leads to a number of interesting behaviors, such as young crows playing with objects to learn how to manipulate, birds teaching one another and sharing information such as food location and grouping together to ward off threats. Often American crows and fish crows will cooperate and socialize together, but in disputes, fish crows almost always yield to American crows. Crows also have an excellent memory and recognize faces and individuals. There are many documented cases of particular humans earning the ire of crows and subsequently being harassed by not only the offended crow, but other crows who were informed of the human’s wrongdoing. On the other hand, there are many cases of humans befriending crows which subsequently bring gifts to their human friends or harass other humans they perceive as threats to their human friends

Special Notes:

Here in Bella Vista, both American and fish crows can be observed, but American crows are more dominant. They can often be seen by roadsides scavenging for carrion. They may even visit bird feeders, if tempting enough!

Scientific Name: Sciuris carolinensis 
Common Name(s): Eastern grey squirrel, grey squirrel

© Tomfrieded

Identification:
The eastern grey squirrel is gray as the name implies with a white underside. The fur can sometimes have hues of brown. White and black color variations are possible and are more common in urban areas where predation is low as they are more visible to predators. Southeast Canada has a melanistic dark black morph that can tolerate colder climates. Grey squirrels are typically 9 to 11 inches in body length with a tail ranging from 7 to 10 inches. There is no difference in appearance between males and females. Their incisors undergo indeterminant growth, meaning they will continue to grow throughout their lives. The eastern gray squirrel can be distinguished from the fox squirrel by their white underside and generally smaller stature.  

Range:
The eastern gray squirrel is native to the eastern half of the U.S. and southeastern Canada.  

Ecology:
Grey squirrels prefer large dense deciduous oak-hickory forests with full, mature trees. However, they are adept at living in suburban and urban environments alongside humans. They create temporary nests called a drey. Dreys are large spherical collections of sticks and leaves usually in the fork of a tree. They are insulated with moss, thistledown, dried grass, and feathers. They can also den permanently in hollowed-out tree trunks or tree branches. Eastern gray squirrels sometimes share their drey or den with other squirrels to maintain body heat in the colder months. Eastern gray squirrels are the prey of many predators, including hawks, owls, bobcats, foxes, weasels, cats, dogs, snakes, and humans.

Grey squirrels are crepuscular, meaning they are active in the morning and evening. During these times, they actively forage and store food in caches. They maintain caches in many locations and use their accurate memory to locate their previously stored food sometimes many months later. Squirrels use smell to find their own caches or pilfer other squirrels’ caches. Smell relies on moist conditions, so it is not effective in dry or snowy environments. If grey squirrels observe another creature watching them while hiding their food, they will pretend to store the food in the cache but hide it in their cheeks instead and find a new spot. They consume hickory nuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, and acorns. In urban areas, they steal birdseed from backyard bird feeders.

Grey squirrels live on average 6 years but have been known to live 12 years in the wild. They reach sexual maturity at 1 to 2 years of age. Mating seasons are from December to February and May to June. Females will typically raise 1 to 2 liters per year, with younger squirrels raising only one liter in the spring and more mature females producing liters in spring and summer. The presence of fertile males in an area will induce females to undergo estrus. In addition, if a mother squirrel loses her young, she will undergo estrus, which can attract males from up to 500 meters away. Gestation takes 44 days. Young are born blind, with closed ears, and without hair. Litter size is typically 1 to 4, but up to 8 kits. Young leave their mothers at 12 weeks of age.

Special Notes:
Here in Bella Vista, grey squirrels are found everywhere. They are adept at pilfering food from bird feeders. Close association with people also provides some protection from predators. Some may even become unwanted house guests, making nests in attics or sheds. They are a very prolific species, providing food for many predators.